Sambucus nigra L., Elder

Account Summary

Growth form and preferred habitats

A very familiar deciduous shrub or small, much-branched tree up to 12 m, Elder is known by many people for its remarkable, thick, corky-barked twigs that contain the widest layer of soft, central, porous pith of any woody plant in B & I, making the twigs easily hollowed out and converting them into the ideal pea-shooter or whistle material of children of every generation, or at least, ones in the pre-plastic era (Edlin 1964)! Although the pith in young stems is very soft and light, the wood of the trunk and heavier branches is remarkably hard, white and horny in texture, making it suitable for turnery and carving, but not for any use requiring strength since it is rather brittle. Even large Elder branches break rather easily.

Elder trees are also not long-lived. The oldest S. nigra tree recorded in a long-abandoned dune system in the Netherlands proved to be just 44 years old (van der Maarel et al. 1985). Elder trees in England with 23 and 25 annual rings appear to have been regarded as old specimens by Atkinson & Atkinson (2002). The tree or bush grows with straight, vigorous erect shoots from the base, the branches often arching. The bark, even on young branches, is soon deeply furrowed and corky in texture, and twigs are greyish, stout and covered with prominent lenticel pores (Edlin 1964).

Elder buds are oppositely set on the twigs, with a clear leaf scar below them and several loose brownish-red or purplish bud scales clothing them. The buds turn green very early and, in a mild winter, they may start growth and begin to open in January, although a hard later frost will cut them back. The large, pinnately compound leaves, usually comprised of 5-7 leaflets, have serrately toothed margins and unfurl in early spring (February or March). The foliage and young shoots are quite foetid, having an unpleasant smell when bruised or broken. Small, stalk-like extra-floral nectaries (5-10 × 1 mm) are produced at the base of leaves and leaflets (Atkinson & Atkinson 2002).

When growing in full sun, Elder produces a very heavy crop of purplish-black, juicy 'berries' (botanically, really they are 'drupes', since they contain a hard, stony fruit layer around the seed). When the 'berries' are ripe, black and shiny, they keenly attract a wide range of birds. They are, in fact, attractive to almost all fruit-eating birds in B & I, including some that are not normally thought of as frugivorous. Furthermore, Elder is so important a source of bird food, it has an impact on the extent to which other nearby plants are visited for food (Snow & Snow 1988, p. 65). Numerically, Starlings are one of the most common visitors to Elders for berries, stripping most of the bushes around towns and villages, working each bush from the top downward. Blackbird, Song Thrush, Robin and Blackcap are also frequent berry-takers, but rank far behind the Starling in terms of the number of fruits consumed. Elderberries ripen early and do so in quantity when few other bird foods are so available, thus it is popular with birds, being the only abundant fruit source in many areas. The berries are readily plucked and all the fruit-eating birds can swallow them whole. The bird-sown seeds are widely distributed but establish mostly in bare ground or disturbed soil, particularly where this is well-drained and enriched with phosphate and nitrogen by the breakdown of organic matter such as dung or refuse.

As a result of its bird-sown seed, Elder trees or bushes are very often associated with human habitation (especially around old farm buildings and abandoned dwellings), badger setts and former rabbit warrens, or in places where dung or other organic waste have been dumped in the past or present.

Other fertile ground is very commonly colonised by S. nigra in a wide range of habitats making it almost omnipresent in hedges and in woods, on scarps, screes, riverbanks, waste ground and on or around old walls. It is common everywhere, except on high altitude or in strongly acidic ground. The greatest altitude recorded in B & I is 470 m at Nenthead, Cumberland (VC70) (G.T.D. Wilmore, in: Preston et al. 2002).

Elder persists even in deep shade in most woodland sites, although under these conditions it generally becomes weak, spindly and few flowered. In a woodland setting, S. nigra appears to do best when the floor is rather heavily grazed and disturbed by stock, presumably because this opens up any existing turf vegetation and provides gaps that allow seedlings to colonise, while limiting competition from the more palatable species present, and at the same time providing dung enrichment of the soil. In the current author's (RSF) experience, this limiting situation, and the importance of animal disturbance in opening the habitat, is very commonly encountered in mixed deciduous woods in Fermanagh.

Elder frequently invades openings in coniferous plantations but, again, as in semi-natural deciduous woodland, scrub and hedgerows, it is greatly reliant upon seed imported from more fertile, productive open sites elsewhere, presumably transported there in the dung of birds and other animals (Grime et al., 1988, 2007).

Variation

A large number of horticultural variants are known within the species, 31 of which are named and listed by Griffiths (1994) in the Royal Horticultural Society index of garden plants. Several of these forms are occasionally found naturalised in B & I, and Sell & Murrell (2006) list six forma. Elderberries are also grown on a commercial scale in Denmark (see below under Uses and folklore).

Flowering reproduction

Elder bushes or trees usually flower in their third or fourth year of growth. The tree generally flowers in May or June, the inflorescences being the familiar flat-topped, umbel-like, corymbose cymes 8-24 cm in diameter, comprised of dozens of small, regular, cream flowers, 5.5-7.5 mm in diameter, with parts in fives. The calyx is about 2 mm, divided one third to the base, the lobes triangular and obtuse at the apex. The corolla, 2.5-3.5 mm, is creamy white with a short tube, stamens are five and the stigma is cream-coloured. The flowers are without nectar, but they give off a strong, musky odour composed of various esters and alcohols that attracts beetles, flies and honey bees as pollinators. It is just possible that a very low proportion of flowers may also self-pollinate (Atkinson & Atkinson 2002).

Rather unusually, fruit and seed may be formed in the absence of pollination and sterile seeds without embryos have been detected (Bolli 1994). Low fruit set is a feature of Elder trees in deep shade, many of their fruit aborting, but this can also happen after very unfavourable weather during anthesis. Estimates of the number of fruits per tree or bush vary with their age, but approximate figures are 30,700, 61,000 and 100,300 for 4-, 5- and 6-year-old-bushes respectively (Atkinson & Atkinson 2002).

Ripe fruit, c 8 mm diameter, first appear in early September and, as noted above, they are essentially transported internally by birds. All trees and bushes are usually stripped of berries (drupes) by birds by early November (Atkinson & Atkinson 2002).

Toxicity

The brittle branches bear large compound leaves that open early and are poisonous. They contain terpene volatile oils, cyanogenic glycosides and bitter tannins that protect the plant from browsing stock. Even the elderberries are poisonous to humans, although often only mildly toxic in the quantity usually consumed (Lang 1987). If eaten raw, in large quantities, they will cause nausea and vomiting. Fortunately, heating (or fermenting!) destroys the toxic activity of the ripe berries (Cooper & Johnson 1998).

Fossil history and status

The fossil record includes both pollen and macroscopic remains as seed, wood and charcoal. The record shows, S. nigra was present in Britain in both the Hoxnian and Ipswichian interglacials. As Godwin (1975) has shown, the earliest record from the current interglacial, the Flandrian, is from the now submerged Dogger Bank, and while Elder was present in zone VIIa, it did not become frequent until zones VIIb and VIII. Indeed, as Godwin (1975) again points out, throughout the Flandrian the fossil records are strongly associated with archaeological situations, thus the count of records listed by Godwin are as follows: Mesolithic, two; Neolithic, three; Bronze Age, six; Iron Age, six; Roman, eight; and Anglo-Saxon and later, four. The fossil record thus points towards a late Flandrian expansion of Elder presence, "without there being good evidence of periglacial survival" (Godwin 1975). It is very possible that we should really consider S. nigra an introduction to B & I by ancient man, ie it maybe is an archaeophyte, rather than a native species.

Fermanagh occurrence

In Fermanagh, as in most of B & I, Elder is omnipresent in a range of natural and artificial habitats. It has been commonly recorded in 286 Fermanagh tetrads, 54.2% of those in the VC.

British and Irish occurrence

S. nigra is very common and widespread across most of both B & I, although it becomes less frequent or even scarce in the NW of Scotland and on unsuitable, exposed high ground in the Highlands. It is also less common in the far west of Ireland, where again, as in NW Scotland, it tends to become closely confined to the vicinity of human habitation, and was very possibly originally introduced there. In Orkney and Shetland, and to an extent also on the Outer Hebrides (VCs 110, 111 & 112), it is displayed in the New Atlas hectad map as an introduction (G.T.D. Wilmore, in: Preston et al. 2002).

European and world occurrence

S. nigra occurs widespread throughout temperate W & C Europe and W Asia, with isolated populations as far north as 63^oN in W Norway and as far at 61^oN in Sweden. As it is both cultivated and bird-sown, it is often difficult or impossible to distinguish indigenous populations from introductions. It is considered an introduction in Norway, since it has probably been cultivated there since the Middle Ages for its berries. East of Lithuania, the northern limit is approximately 55^oN. It is present around the northern shore of the Mediterranean from S France to Turkey and in Mallorca, Corsica, Sardinia and Sicily. It is also present in N Africa in the Atlas Mountains, Morocco, Algeria and Tunisia, but it is thought to be an introduction here, as also is the case amongst other areas in the Canary Isles, the Azores, N America, Greenland, E Asia, S Australia and New Zealand (Hultén & Fries 1986, Map 1737; Atkinson & Atkinson 2002).

Uses and folklore

As children everywhere have been shown for generations, the wide, soft white pith in the stem is easily removed to make marvellous pea-shooters, or far less marvellous whistles!

In Britain, the flowers and fruit of Elder are used in the soft fruit industry for making popular drinks. In 1995, the UK industry created around 15 million litres of natural-flavoured elder-based drinks (mostly elderflower cordial), which was a 500% increase over the 1991 figure (Prendergast & Dennis 1997). Most of the material used was collected from naturally occurring bushes within a few kilometres of the processing plants, leading to worrying speculation on the impact on such hedgerow populations if this were to continue unregulated.

Elder is grown on a commercial scale in many European countries, the fruit being used for colouring fruit juices and for making elderberry wine and jelly. The flowers are also used (as noted above) for making elderflower cordial and wine.

In other uses, elder pith has a long history of use for providing support for hand-sectioning of biological specimens and in fine cleaning of engineering materials in laboratory work. Bruised elder leaves, or infusions of them, give off strong unpleasant odours and have been used to control various domestic and agricultural pests including aphids and small caterpillars. Bark of older branches has been used as an ingredient in dyeing black. The leaves and berries have also been used in preparation of green, blue and purple dyes (Grieve 1931).

The foremost use of Elder for a very long time, going back indeed to ancient Rome, has been its importance in folk medicine and the preparation of herbal remedies (Grieve 1931). The bark has strong purgative and diuretic properties and was used to treat epilepsy. Stronger doses were used as an emetic (ie to cause vomiting).

Leaves were used in various preparations to treat bruises, sprains, chilblains and wounds, including tumours and swellings, as ointments and poultices. Like the bark, the leaves are also purgative, but more nauseous than the bark, their action likewise expectorant, diuretic and diaphoretic.

Elderflower water was used in mixing medicines and chiefly as a vehicle for eye and skin lotions. It is mildly astringent and a gentle stimulant. The berries were used to make a winter cordial, taken hot with sugar, as a well-established cure for a cold.

The fresh berries contain sudorific properties (ie induces sweating), similar to the flowers, but weaker. The berries were used in treating rheumatism and as a laxative, for colic and diarrhoea and were said to have aperient (ie relieved constipation), diuretic and emetic properties (Grieve 1931).

In folklore, Elder is one of the most enigmatic plants in the British and Irish folk tradition. On the one hand it is feared and associated with witches and magic, and on the other it is highly valued for its protective qualities, as an insect repellent and for its herbal medicinal and food value. It has connections with fairies as well as witches and, as with Hawthorn, it was not considered wise to interfere with it, burn its timber, or cut it down. It was not wise to bring its wood, or its flowers into the house, partly because it was believed that Judas Iscariot had hung himself from it. If you fell asleep under Elder flowers, the scent would poison you and you might never wake up. In other areas of England, in the past, an Elder bush was often planted near the door of a cow-shed or stable as a protection for the animals from witchcraft and sorcery. In Guernsey, Elder was planted as near to the back door of a cottage as possible as this was the most used entrance, since it was a sacred tree and a good protection against witchcraft. Elder bushes were planted near outside privy toilets on country farms and cottages, as the smell of the plant helped keep insects away from them.

It is possible that the various folk beliefs associated with Elder were due, at least in part, to efforts to protect a valuable resource, it being the wild plant most widely used in folk medicine (Vickery 1995).

Names

The genus name 'Sambucus' is Greek or ancient Latin name for the Elder tree, said to be derived from the Latin 'sambuca', the name of a stringed musical instrument, like a harp, which was supposedly made of Elder wood (Johnson & Smith 1946). There is a notion that the tree gives rise to numerous, straight, erect, parallel epicormic shoots, which resemble the strings of this musical instrument (Gilbert-Carter 1964; Stearn 1992). Against this idea, is the fact that the timber would not be sufficiently strong to make a stringed instrument. The wood would be much more suitable for the construction of a wind instrument, such as a Pan-pipe or a flute (Grieve 1931). The Latin specific epithet 'nigra' refers to the black 'berries'. There are no less than 18 alternative English common names listed by Grigson (1955, 1987).

The name 'Elder' is thought to come from the Old English 'ellern', 'ellarn', 'ellen', 'eller', 'elle', all of which are not infrequent in place-names (Grigson 1974). These word-forms may mean 'kindler' (as in kindling) and be derived through Anglo-Saxon 'œld', Danish 'ild', Swedish 'eld', meaning 'fire', from 'œlan', 'kindle', and related to the Dutch 'helder', 'clear', and whence 'op-helderen', meaning 'kindle' or 'brighten up' (Prior 1879). The latter author suggests this name may have been acquired from its hollow branches being used, like the bamboo in the tropics, to blow up a fire. In support of this, it was also known as 'Pipe-tree' or 'Bore-tree', 'Bour-tree', and variations of this idea (Grigson 1955, 1987).

Threats

None.

References

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